The Evolution of Wired Networking to Wireless Networking
Key Concepts:
  • The origin, purpose, and function of the OSI Reference Model
  • The origins of wireless technology
  • The economic impact of wireless networking
  • How wireless networking has changed the way people work
  • The size of the Wi-Fi market
  • The impact of Wi-Fi on developing nations
  • The Internet of Things
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
  • Describe the function of the OSI Reference Model
  • Understand and describe the functions of each layer in the OSI Reference Model
  • Describe IP addressing and the key differences between IPv4 and IPv6
  • Describe MAC addresses and how they differ from IP addresses
  • Provide examples of how wireless networking is used in health care, warehousing, and retail
In this lesson, you will closely examine computer networking. You will learn how wireless networking relates to the broader topic of networking in general. You will learn that the specifications that define wireless networking are a small subset of the broader networking picture. In addition, you will discover the effects of wireless networking from a business, social, economic, and security perspective.
DISCOVER
APPLY
CREATE
CONCEPTS
OBJECTIVES
CONTEXT
TECHNOLOGY
UNDERSTANDING
DEMO LAB
HANDS-ON LAB
CHALLENGE
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
COURSE OF ACTION

In this section, you will examine a number of topics related to mobile and wireless security. You will learn about specific security issues related to wireless networking and mobile devices.

Concepts: Security has always been a challenge in networking. Wireless networking and mobile devices make achieving network security more complex.

Objectives: The objectives of wireless networking and mobile security are similar to those of conventional network security—to protect the network, devices, and data from harm.

Context: The information and communication fields have experienced momentous changes over the past few decades. Learning about these changes will help you meet the challenges of securing wireless networks and mobile devices.

Technology: The evolution of technology has deeply impacted the way information is secured. You need to recognize how ongoing developments in technology continue to present both challenges and opportunities in wireless network and mobile device security.

Understanding: Wireless networks and mobile devices are pervasive in today’s society. You will come away from this course with a firm understanding of how security is achieved for mobile devices and wireless networks.

Networking and the Open System Interconnection Reference Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model was initially proposed in 1984. Before that, most equipment manufacturers had developed their own proprietary methods for data networking, including unique communication protocols, connection interfaces, procedures for data storage and retrieval, and more. This locked customers into a single vendor solution. Added to concerns over the limited scope of solutions, these proprietary approaches resulted in a stalled market. So it also turned out to be bad for vendors as well.

The answer was to develop a model that defined standards for communication protocols and the physical and logical interfaces between machines and subsystems. Published by the International Organization for Standardization, the OSI Reference Model defines seven layers (referred to as a stack) that describe standards from the physical wire all the way up to the application interfaces on computers. Each layer has a specific function, common among all devices, and a specific way of communicating with the layer above and the layer below in the stack.

This standardization enabled different companies to produce solutions or products that were compatible with products from other manufacturers, even without up-front collaboration. This led to innovation and more products.

The OSI Reference Model benefitted consumers—businesses, universities, and governments—who enjoyed greater choice. This helped propel the networking industry into the economic power that it has become.

Click on each of the following topics to learn more. Next, click the ACTIVITY button to complete a brief exercise.

  • The seven layers of the OSI Reference Model
  • Communicating over a network
  • The Data Link Layer
  • The Physical Layer
From Wired to Wireless
The networking industry began to grow in the 1980s and exploded in the 1990s with the culmination of affordable personal computers and growing popularity of the Internet and the World Wide Web. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) opened several bands of the radio spectrum for unlicensed use in 1985. This was a big change, given that apart from ham radio, which was valued as a nationwide emergency communication system, the radio spectrum was tightly controlled and required licensed approval for use. This visionary decision had a profound effect on networking and several other industries.


Click on each topic to learn more. Next, click the ACTIVITY button to complete a brief exercise.
  • The effect of the FCC decision
  • Standards for WLANS
The Economic Impact of Wireless Networking
Today, consumers demand the right to move around—to be mobile.

The first wave of the wireless revolution included early adopters who provided fixed-line PC-based Internet services at cafés and shopping malls. Their fee-based services, which were fraught with security issues—including keyboard sniffers to capture passwords and banking details—soon succumbed to free public wireless broadband offerings.

Soon, it became common to have high-speed ADSL and broadband fixed-line networks in homes. To reduce churn, ISPs often supplied Wi-Fi–enabled gateways to consumers. These measures helped Wi-Fi gain traction in homes and small businesses. In 2005, wireless broadband accounted for productivity gains of $28 billion.
Wireless Networking and the Way People Work
Wireless networking has changed how people work in the office—particularly knowledge workers. These were the first wave of employees to use computers and, later, laptops. These workers found it useful to connect to the network from anywhere in the office, such as meeting rooms, particularly given the collaborative nature of their work.

Wireless fundamentally changed the way some industries did business. A few of them are discussed here.

Click on each industry to learn more.
  • Health care
  • Warehousing and logistics
  • Retail
  • General business and knowledge workers
Wi-Fi and the Internet of Things
In this section, we’ll take a look at the Wi-Fi market, how Wi-Fi affects developing nations, and the Internet of Things.

Click on each topic to learn more about each one. Next, click the ACTIVITY button to complete a brief exercise.
  • The Wi-Fi market
  • How Wi-Fi affects developing nations
  • The Internet of Things

In this section, you will have an opportunity to practice the concepts and processes that you have explored in this lesson.

The Demo Lab provided in this lesson guides you through the steps needed to perform tasks related to wireless and mobile device security. You may review these guided interactions as many times as needed.

The Hands-On Lab provides you with an engaging learning experience that is diagnostic and flexible. Follow the instructions provided in the Lab Manual.

In this section, you will have an opportunity to use what you have learned in this lesson to meet a challenge. A scenario is provided here that depicts situations often faced by professionals in the workplace.

You will explore the scenario, review related critical information, research a topic, and present your findings. Complete your work by submitting the graded assignment.

You work as a networking consultant for Secure Systems Solutions (SSS). You specialize in wireless and mobile device security.

The IEEE is in the process of ratifying the specifications for 400 Gb Ethernet. You recently attended a meeting about how these new specifications may affect your clients.

You receive an e-mail message. You can see that it is from your boss, Claire.

The new specifications for 400 Gb Ethernet will have a big impact on our clients. I think it’s important that we stay abreast of the developments from the Ethernet Alliance and the Ethernet Alliance 400GbE Subcommittee.

Please research the progress they are making. Then write a report that describes the Ethernet Alliance’s goals, how they plan to achieve those goals, and their timeline.

Thanks in advance for your hard work.

Claire
Senior Manager, SSS

Contributing Factors

In this lesson, you learned about networking and the Open System Interconnection Reference Model and its Data Link Layer, which has been dominated by the Ethernet protocol for decades.

Research the progress the IEEE is making in ratifying standards for 400 Gb Ethernet. Then write a report that describes the Ethernet Alliance’s goals, how they plan to achieve those goals, and their timeline.

For a checklist of action items, navigate to Course of Action on the right panel of the screen.

Use the following checklist as a guide to complete this assignment. Note that the tasks you have completed are already checked on the list.

Tasks

  • Read the verbiage of the e-mail from your boss.
  • Consider all the factors that contribute to the challenge.
  • Research the progress the IEEE is making in ratifying standards for 400 Gb Ethernet.
  • Write a report that describes:
    • The Ethernet Alliance’s goals
    • How the Ethernet Alliance plans to achieve those goals
    • The timeline for ratifying standards for 400 Gb Ethernet
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Common connectionless and connection-oriented protocols

TCP is the most commonly used connection-oriented Layer 4 protocol. Most Internet applications use TCP, along with IP, to support network communications. Some specific network uses do not require the overhead of complete TCP connections. UDP is a connectionless protocol that many applications use to send individual packets to one or more hosts. UDP is well-suited to transaction-oriented, simple query-response protocols. UDP is a common option when sending service requests to a group of servers. In some networks, a service requester will send a UDP datagram to a group of hosts asking for a specific service. Busy hosts may take longer to respond, so the first host to respond is likely the one that can handle the service request quickest. This strategy uses UDP in simple load balancing. Other connectionless protocols include:
  • Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)—Used to communicate network health information between network hosts or devices.
  • Domain Name Service (DNS)—Used to provide a distributed name resolution service. DNS supports converting host names into IP addresses.
  • Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)—Generally used to automatically transfer files between network nodes.
  • Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)—Used to monitor and manage networks from remote nodes.
The decision between connectionless and connection-oriented protocols depends on use. IP provides a solid foundation for both connectionless and connection-oriented upper layer protocols.
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The effect of the FCC decision

The frequency bands in question—900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8GHz—had previously been reserved for things such as microwave ovens, among others. The FCC’s decision allowed anyone to use these bands (or any company to build a product that used these bands) as long as they managed interference with other devices. This made products such as cordless phones and remote-controlled ceiling fans—and wireless networks—possible.

At the time, wireless performance was poor when compared to a hard-wired Ethernet connection. Initially, users were more interested in convenience than performance. Before the advent of WLAN, if you wanted to connect to a network, you had to go to where the computer was tethered to an Ethernet port. Or, if you had a laptop, you had to go where the connection port was.

Wireless networking changed all that. With WLAN, you brought your computer to where you wanted to be and connected to the network from there. The convenience of connecting in a meeting room or on your couch far outweighed the slower connection speed, especially since there were few high-speed network applications at the time. This convenience factor created a surge in WLAN use. In response, manufacturers poured millions into research and development (R&D), which improved performance and attracted more users.

Initially, WLANs operated at about 500 kilobits per second (Kbps) on an unlicensed frequency band, which meant that anyone could use it. It was not restricted or reserved for commercial or government use as long as the transmission power was kept low. Then, performance was boosted to 2 megabits per second (Mbps), a 400-percent improvement.

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Standards for WLANS

In 1990, the IEEE established a working group to create a standard for WLANs. In 1997, the IEEE 802.11 standard was ratified, specifying the use of the 2.4 GHz band with data rates of up to 2 Gbps. Different versions of the 802.11 standard were developed in subsequent years and were noted via extensions such as a, b, g, and n. Notationally, this would appear as “802.11b,” for example.

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Benefits of unified communications

Potential benefits of unified communications include:

  • Better support of remote and mobile users, which reduces the number of workers that need a physical office
  • Increased ability to conduct teleconferences and video conferences, which can reduce travel expenses for meetings and training
  • Higher worker productivity and retention as remote worker support provides more flexibility to conform to personal needs and schedules
  • Reduced sales cycle timeline due to more effective communication with all parties involved in the sales effort
  • Shortened project timelines due to a reduced lag time in communications; better identification of communication paths to resolve questions and issues
  • Increased customer satisfaction due to more effective communication throughout the issue resolution process

The key to a solid UC plan is to understand the organization’s process and communication needs.

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The seven layers of the OSI Reference Model

From the bottom up, the layers are as follows:
  • Layer 1: Physical Layer—The signal path over which data is transmitted. This can include copper wires; optical fibers; radio signals such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and Bluetooth; and any other transmission path. The units of information at this layer are bytes or bits.
  • Layer 2: Data Link Layer—Helps establish the communication path by specifying the media access control (MAC) address of each device. Layer 2 is viewed as the “switching” layer. Ethernet is a Layer 2 protocol. The unit of information at this layer is the data frame.
  • Layer 3: Network Layer—Typically viewed as the routing or IP layer, although the line between routing and switching has blurred. This layer handles communication paths between LANs. The Internet Protocol (IP) exists at Layer 3. Communication paths are defined in terms of their IP addresses. The unit of information at this layer is the packet.
  • Layer 4: Transport Layer—The bridge between the network and the application processing software on devices where data from applications is broken down into packets that are sent and then reassembled on the receiving device.
  • Layer 5: Session Layer—Defines and manages communications between applications on separate devices.
  • Layer 6: Presentation Layer—Formats information sent to and from applications.
  • Layer 7: Application Layer—Connects software applications to the network.
Inter-stack communication is accomplished through the use of headers. As data is created (at the Application Layer) and sent down the stack and across the network to another device, each layer adds its own set of instructions for the corresponding layer on the other machine and for the layer below or above the stack on the same machine.

Although the OSI Reference Model provides a framework, the lines between layers have blurred. For example, Layers 5 through 7 are referred as the “Application Layers.” Layers 3 and 4 are closely associated due the use of Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Also, the functional lines between switches and routers have been blurred, as innovation and processing power have accelerated, which allowed for greater efficiency in multitasking devices. As a result, Layers 2 and 3 are no longer the sole domains of switching and routing, respectively.

An OSI layer can communicate only with the layers immediately above and below it on the stack and with its peer layer on another device.

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Communicating over a network

This section provides an overview of a few key aspects of network communication. At the simplest level, the role of the Application Layers is to prepare data for transport over the network or to reassemble data for use by the application on the receiving end. The role of the Network Layer is to ensure that the data reaches the correct destination. This is achieved by:
  • IP addressing enables a network to correctly route packets across a network. For most of the past 30 years, Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) was used. This scheme used a dotted decimal format, which consists of four octets that define the location of a source or destination LAN. A typical IP address has the format 198.10.249.168, where one or more of the first octets defines the network segment and the remaining octets define the hostson that network. Each octet ranges from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 255. The maximum number is 255 because it is the largest eight-digit binary number (11111111). Certain numbers, such as 0 and 255, are reserved for certain types of communication. At first, IPv4 was thought to be large enough to allow for future expansion. This was before nearly every business office, home, and smartphone needed an IP address.
  • Network architects needed to segment networks to improve communication, increase bandwidth efficiency, and segment user groups. To do this, network architects used subnetting, which enables network engineers to segment hosts within a network, using a subnet mask.
  • Network address translation (NAT) allows a company to have one public address, which can be accessed from the Internet, and another set of private addresses, which can only be accessed internally. This has security benefits and extends the use of limited IP address space. The addressing scheme can be shifted to have many networks with fewer hosts, and then NAT can accommodate the number of hosts or devices that exist on large networks.
  • Another method to deal with the shortage of IP addresses was to assign them on an as-needed basis. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) was used to automatically assign IP addresses to devices as needed. In addition to (slightly) freeing up address spaces, this also reduced personnel costs because it eliminated the need for technicians to manually assign and configure addresses. DHCP is still used by Internet service providers (ISPs) to assign addresses to home subscribers. Both NAT and DHCP helped extend the life of IPv4 addressing, but were only stopgap measures given the increase in IP-enabled devices.
  • Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), a 128-bit address scheme, allows more than 3.5 undecillion addresses, so that address space will no longer be an issue. Other benefits include auto-configuration, improved address management, built-in security/encryption capability, and optimized routing. An IPV6 address contains eight fields of four-digit hexadecimal (base 16) numbers (0 to 9 and a to f ) as follows:

    • 2051:0011:13A2:0000:0000:03b2:000a:19aa

    The notation also allows for a shorthand method that eliminates leading zeroes, with an all-zero field represented by a single zero:

    2051:11:13a2:0:0:3b2:a:19aa

    Further, successive fields of all zeroes can be shortened with a double colon (::) as follows:

    2051:11:13a2::3b2:a:19aa

    IPv4 remains in wide use because converting to IPv6 requires upgrades and, so far, the workarounds seem to work. Most new devices are IPv6-enabled. The tipping point of the conversion will likely occur over a 7- to 10-year period when most networking devices are replaced with devices that can accommodate the new addressing scheme.
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The Data Link Layer

Layer 2, the Data Link Layer, uses the Ethernet protocol. Used primarily in LANs, Ethernet is how switches move data between machines. Ethernet has been expanded and is used in data centers and large metro area networks.

Unlike IP, which connects LANs with each other, Ethernet connects data among machines that are all on the same network. One of the key components of Ethernet deals with preventing data collisions that occur when multiple computers transmit data at the same time on the same segment of the network.

Much in the way that routers are associated with Layer 3, switches rule Layer 2. A switch connects different network segments together via switch ports, each of which can have multiple machines (or other switches in a hierarchical network). When a data frame (the Layer 2 version of a packet) arrives on a switch port, the switch looks up the source and destination media access control (MAC) address and makes a forwarding decision based on the rule set associated with the destination MAC address.

Unlike IP addresses, MAC addresses are physically assigned to every individual device that can connect to a network by the manufacturer as the device rolls off the assembly line. MAC addresses are intended to be both unique and permanent. It’s possible to spoof a MAC address, however, which has significant security implications.

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The Physical Layer

At bottom of the stack, the OSI Reference Model specifies standards for the medium over which data is transmitted. The standards specified at Layer 1 are complex.

Layer 1 defines how the actual bits are transmitted between devices, including specifications on the following:
  • Transmission—Bit-by-bit procedures
  • Electrical—Signal levels, amplification, and attenuation
  • Mechanical—Specifications for cables (type, length) and connectors
  • Procedural—Modulation schemes, synchronization, signaling, and multiplexing
  • Wireless transmissions—Frequencies, signal strength, and bandwidth
  • Throughput—Bit rates
  • Topologies—Bus, ring, mesh, point-to-point, and point-to-multipoint
Protocols defined at Layer 1 include the following:
  • Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET)/Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
  • Digital subscriber line (DSL)
  • T1/E1
  • Integrated Services for Digital Networks (ISDN)
  • Ethernet Physical Layer
  • Bluetooth
  • 802.11 (WLAN)
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Health care

One of the first industries to adopt wireless technology was health care. In 2005, productivity improvements from the use of mobile wireless broadband solutions across the U.S. health care industry were valued at almost $6.9 billion. By 2016, this number is forecast to expand to $27.2 billion.

Health care uses wireless technology to improve communication and provide instant access to information portals for diagnosis and general health information. These improvements in efficiency alone don’t explain the savings in health care, however. Another $900 million was gained by reducing inventory loss through the use of wireless tagging or radio frequency identification (RFID).

Wireless technology allows modern medical devices and monitors to be moved with patients as they travel to different places in the hospital—from their room to a lab, to pre- and post-op, to recovery, and back to their room. Before wireless, there was the constant need to disconnect, move, and reconnect these devices and monitors, which presented opportunities for errors or breakdowns. Cables, connectors, and ports break down with extended use. In addition, the frequent need to adjust the bed’s height and position often resulted in pinched or severed cables, many of which went unnoticed for some time, leaving patients unmonitored.

Wireless technology allows for real-time data at the point of care. This has significant implications:
  1. The patient can always be monitored, which improves staff reaction time to alerts—a potential lifesaver.
  2. It allows for real-time access to patients’ files. Patients used to have a paper chart at the foot of their bed, which a doctor or nurse would look at prior to administering care or running a test. These charts were highly prone to errors, such as lost or missing pages, misinterpreted handwriting, and out-of-date or incomplete information. With wireless, caregivers now have real-time access to patients’ digital records. This also allows potentially lifesaving improvements, such as auto alerts, which help eliminate errors with treatment, incompatible prescriptions, or incorrect dosages. Of course, important security considerations go along with using wireless technology in this manner.
An important but less dramatic use of wireless in health care is that most hospitals offer free Wi-Fi, increasing patient and visitor satisfaction.



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Warehousing and logistics

Prior to wireless networking, warehouse personnel logged storage locations on paper and used written notes to retrieve them. This method was fraught with errors and inefficiencies, especially in bigger warehouses.

Wireless networking allows for greater efficiency, including:
  • Asset tracking—With wireless networking, companies can automatically track assets in real time, providing a major productivity gain over manual inventory checks.
  • Picking (retrieving) efficiency—Before wireless networking, retrieving inventory for distribution (picking the item off the warehouse floor) might involve workers walking (or riding) several hundred yards through a warehouse, only to arrive and not find the item. The worker would then have to walk (or ride) all the way back, try to find the error, and repeat the process. With wireless technology, location accuracy is much improved. This saves time and money.
  • Loss control—In a 2004 report by Ovum, several companies reported substantial inventory management savings through using wireless technology. When these figures were extrapolated across other industries, the savings were $272 million in 2004 and estimated to be as much as $26 billion by 2016.
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Retail

In retail, wireless has resulted in the following key changes:

  • Inventory counts—Retailers always want the most popular products on hand, but they must carefully manage their inventory to avoid overstocking. Accurate inventory counts and direct front-of-store and point-of-customer interaction can put warehouse orders into motion in real time.
  • Customer satisfaction—Retailers spend a great deal of money getting shoppers into their stores. Once shoppers are there, retailers must do their best to convert them into buyers. This can be difficult, however, in an industry with a transient workforce, especially during those critical shopping seasons when a retail business can be made (or ruined). Arming sales staff with wireless devices turns even new employees into product experts by allowing them to verify back-of-store inventory, suggest popular merchandise tie-ins or up-sells, or check with other local outlets for popular items.
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General business and knowledge workers

The biggest impact of wireless networking is the changes in how, where, and when people work. Before the wide adoption of wireless networking, people tended to work mostly in the office. When employees worked outside the office, either after hours or while traveling, they were often limited to offline work or submitting work in batches.

With the flexibility provided by wireless, worker productivity has increased. The cost includes that the line between “work” and “not work” has blurred to the point that it’s hard to distinguish where work ends and one’s personal life begins. Many employers expect staff to be available and check e-mails late at night, on weekends, and on vacations. Another concern is that using portable devices to access a work network via a public Wi-Fi connection opens a vast array of potential security vulnerabilities.

Wi-Fi has brought about considerable increases in savings and efficiency. Its impact on the economy was considerable—even in its fledgling state, in the early 2000s, before high-speed devices and mobile Web applications.



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The Wi-Fi market

In 2013, the worldwide WLAN market was an estimated $7.5 billion per year. About half of that was attributed to growth in the enterprise space, suggesting that large companies are embracing the idea of users connecting to the network over wireless most, if not all, of the time. This annual spending on WLAN equipment is only part of the story, though. Wi-Fi technology has changed the way many organizations do business and has created whole new business models.

Coffee shops, bookstores, and cafés have embraced wireless connectivity in two waves. The first wave involved providing wireless access to a private LAN that charged for a one-time use or for a subscription. Many such businesses felt this was a nice add-on feature and an opportunity for revenue. However, most of these businesses have converted to free access, choosing to forego the additional revenue. They encourage clients to actually use their stores as an office, for two reasons:
  • Those customers tend to buy other goods and services while there.
  • It creates a regular and loyal customer base.
Hotels have also been transformed. Providing Internet access to guests has become essential. Perhaps the biggest impact of wireless technology on the hotel industry is that it has drastically lowered the cost of providing Internet access. For example, think of an older hotel where retrofitting to offer a wired network would be prohibitively expensive. If not for wireless technology, many hotels would have to choose between expensive upgrades and potential loss of revenue. With wireless technology, Internet access can be provided at a much lower cost.

Some hotels offer free network access, especially in the lobby, where they encourage users to meet. However, many hotels charge for access in rooms and even offer tiered options for basic or high-speed connectivity. The theory is that outside of resort towns, a high percentage of hotel rooms are booked by business travelers, who can simply expense the cost of connectivity along with their hotel bill.

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How Wi-Fi affects developing nations

Parts of the world lack the physical infrastructure that developed countries have long taken for granted. This so-called digital divide between the haves and have-nots reveals a disparity between developed nations, where the majority of people have access to the Internet, and developing nations, where a much smaller percent have access.

Access to the Internet means access to global commerce, enabling any and every businessperson, artist, and craftsman to reach customers all over the world. Access to the Internet also provides access to much of human knowledge.

Access to the Internet changes lives for the better and gives opportunities to those who would not otherwise have them. Until wireless networking was developed, however, it was often cost-prohibitive to install the infrastructure needed to allow access on a broad scale. In some places, the development of this infrastructure was thwarted by thieves, who frequently tore copper lines out of the ground within hours of installation to sell the copper.

Wireless networking is more cost-effective to install. Last-mile connectivity—that is, the connection between a person’s house or other termination point and the local switch that connects to the network backbone—can be achieved with point-to-point microwave links, eliminating the need to install and protect physical lines. As a result, many developing nations have started to close the digital divide and are enjoying sustainable and self-reinforcing productivity improvements.
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The Internet of Things

Wireless technology is the key to the Internet of Things (IoT), the potential interconnection of virtually any electronic devices that can be controlled and optimized via automation or remotely via an Internet connection. With the IoT, many people’s interactions will be via smart homes and electronics, allowing energy-saving programming, automated lighting, safety programming, and home entertainment. The IoT will dramatically shape the way people live and interact with their home environment and electronic devices. The IoT will also extend to enterprise and industrial settings, and even into implanted medical devices.

The IoT has long been available through wired networks, but adoption among the general public has been slow due to the costs associated with wiring and, in older homes, retrofitting. This barrier has been recently removed thanks to the reduction in the size and cost of wireless technology.

As the IoT becomes a reality over the next several years there will be many benefits with regard to safety, energy efficiency, and convenience, but it will also open a whole new world of security threats and vulnerabilities. It’s one thing to have your computer files destroyed by a virus, or to have your credit card run up by a cyber thief. It’s another thing altogether to have a cybercriminal lock someone out of their house, ransom control of their heating system in winter, or take control of a moving vehicle.